The situation on gender in Sri Lanka is quite complex. Current gender disparities in
Sri Lanka are mainly due to inequalities in legal system, patriarchal values, residues
of the Victorian mentality imposed on the natives by the colonial powers, and
inapt macro-economic policies. The addition, the fact Sri Lanka is a
multi-ethnic nation, too, adds a unique twist to the gender issues of the
island.
Then the question raised next should be
-‘To what extent do gender differences exist in Sri Lanka?” In order to answer this,
the Sri Lankan formula for gender roles and gender stratification should be
carefully analyzed in comparison to internationally accepted standards.
Schaefer in his book Sociology says that, gender –
a cultural construction based on sexual differences – is “such routine part of
our everyday activities that we typically take it for granted noticing only
when someone deviates from conventional behaviour and expectations (166).” Gender stratification is the unequal
distribution of rights and resources between men and women.
According to George Peter Murdock, a
family- in relation to primary socialization of an individual - performs four
functions; sexual, reproductive, economic and educational. Being the primary
building block of a patriarchal society, Sri Lankan family takes decidedly
different paths in performing Murdock’s functions in relation to gender of the
recipient. The process of socialization allocates males and females gender roles - expectations regarding
the proper behaviour, attitudes and activities - almost before birth. Boys are
expected to be daring and dominant while their counterparts are compelled to be
soft and submissive. Both family and society penalize women more readily in
case of breach of norms. However, it should be noted that this trend is by no
way unique to Sri Lanka.
Robert Brannon and James Doyle identify
five elements in male gender role: anti-feminine
element, success element, aggressive element, sexual element and self -reliant element. It could safely be
said that these elements also govern the relationships between genders and lead
to discrimination of members of both. These five elements that make up the male
gender role, beyond doubt, apply to the Sri Lankan context too and lead to inequalities
in the binary power structure of dominance and subordination. Males who do not
conform to the above are often belittled by other males and thought to be effeminate
by women. Women are routinely pushed aside or exploited by men in the game of
‘survival of the fittest’.
Let us at this point look at the gender
picture of Sri Lanka as a whole. Despite being a developing country, Sri Lanka has
managed to achieve an impressive human development indicator. UNDP states that,
since 1998, gender development index of Sri Lanka has consistently been
high for a South Asian country. Social Institution and Gender Index ranked Sri
Lanka 45th out of 102 countries while India was placed 96th.
Persistent patriarchal values seen in
almost all societies are tempered by some democratic features in traditional
Sri Lankan society that disallow extreme forms of gender discrimination. Missing
women, dowry deaths, gender based foeticide and infanticide, neglect of girl
children, child marriages, sati, female genital mutilation and circumcision are
almost unheard of. The fact that 51% of the population is made up of women
attest to this (GID data base 2008).
Most married couples maintain patrilocal
post-marital residences, but the new bride retains strong life-long ties with
her own family of orientation. Bride’s family often gives a dowry to the
groom’s family, but the bride usually retains control over her property. Having
small families with children of both sexes is preferred over having only sons. Most
Sri Lankan families welcome girl babies as a first born. Son-preference is mostly
associated with continuing the family name.
The same sources that have painted a very
positive picture of the gender scenario in Sri Lanka point out some glaring
discrepancies in the fields of health, education, political empowerment,
economic participation and legal rights. Let us look into these areas and
evaluate the extent to which people are treated differently based on their
gender.
Gender in health care: It could be
stated that gender based differences in access to health care are marginal in Sri Lanka. According
to UNDP Human Development Report for 2006, life expectancy for a woman in Sri Lanka at
birth is 77 years. Maternal mortality per 100,000 live births is 92. 96.6% live
births are attended by skilled staff. 98.4% mothers have access to prenatal
care while 83% make use of the postnatal care made available. All general
hospitals have antenatal and family planning clinics. Over 300 well-women
clinics screen women for deadly diseases like hypertension, diabetes, breast
cancers, etc., free of charge and open to all.
Yet morbidity, which has a negative
implication on the quality of the life of women, has not declined significantly.
Poor environmental conditions and declining free health services can be cited
as the main cause of persistently high morbidity rate. Due to feminization of
poverty, women are often more adversely affected in the event of declining free
health care facilities. Moreover, occupational health for women receives low
priority in comparison to the programmes geared to assist their reproductive
health.
Gender in education: According to UNDP
HDR of 2006, female adult literacy rate for ages 15 and older is 89.1%. Both
males and females have equal access to education. But gender role stereotypes
influence the aspirations of Sri Lankan women in pursuing secondary/ tertiary
education as well as career training programmes. In an article headed “Lankan
women still struggling for their rights” on southasia.oneworld.net, Rani
Singharaja, director of SWEAT, commenting on the estate sector says, “When it
comes to education it is the boys who are getting preference.” Compared to
their male counterparts, females find it increasingly harder to translate their
educational qualifications to economic gains. Approximately 70% of the educated
unemployed are women.
Gender and economic participation: UNDP
Human Development Report of 2006 states that the estimated income for a Sri
Lankan male is $6158 while it is merely $2561 for a woman. Women are restricted
to low paying ‘female’ occupations which are more repetitive and
detail-oriented. Only 0.6% women work in senior administrative or management
compared to 1.6% of men. This alludes to the presence of a ‘glass ceiling’ for
women in career advancements and employment opportunities. The prejudice
against women in decision-making positions is particularly strong in the
private sector.
When it comes to foreign employment, females
are restricted to domestic and factory work while men enjoy a range of
opportunities. Females working abroad make the greatest contribution to GDP but
it is often underrepresented. They are also vulnerable to abuse.
Unemployment statistics for women in 2002
are 14.8% while only 7.3% men were thus affected. The main reason for this
alarming disproportion is the reluctance of employers to hire women. It must
also be noted that some employers prefer women as they are more malleable and
less likely to agitate for their rights. Garment industry which employs 80%
women can be cited as an example for this trend. According to the Health
Division of the Labour Department, 66% of the factory girls working in the Free Trade Zones (18-25yrs) suffer from
acute anaemia. Few have opportunities of upward occupational mobility. They
work long hours for relatively low wages threatened with occupational/ health
hazards, harassments and job insecurity.
Regardless of being engaged in paid labour
women are expected to shoulder food preparation and most other domestic tasks
in the family (the second shift). Female contribution to house work is 70%
(UNDP HDR 2006). Women who are forced to give up work to provide child care
find it difficult to find work once the children are old enough. Sri Lankan
women with secondary education are often confined to horizontal mobility in
employment.
Subcontracting labour intensive work-
mainly to women- is a relatively new trend. Women who do piece work for
subcontractors are not protected by labour legislation. Therefore, they are
often paid below minimum wages.
Informal sector and self employment which
cater to a large number of women do not get adequate policy support or input.
According to an article of South Asia Media, “Macro-credit cum self employment
programmes have perpetuated poverty among the majority of low income women as
they are limited to producing for the ‘poverty market’ of low income earners.”
On the other hand, working women earn a
measure of economic empowerment. They control their income and the assets
created by them such as independent bank accounts. As a result they have gained
a say in the spousal selection. Dowry is increasingly being replaced by income
from employment.
Considering the above facts it is obvious
that economic participation is an area where gender differences are strongly
felt. A lot has to be done to even the scales for women who are obviously
discriminated on the basis of their gender.
Gender and politics in Sri Lanka: Sri Lankan women have earned the right to vote in 1931, long ahead
of their western sisters. Out of 62 years of independence, the country has been
ruled by female executives for nearly 30 years. According to the gender gap report
issued by the World Bank in 2008, “Sri Lanka continues to hold a
privileged position of having the best performance in the region regarding
political empowerment.” Sri Lanka
was ranked 16th in the report with Spain
(17), France (18), Australia (20) and the USA (31) trailing
behind.
Despite these very positive trends, the
report issued by the Inter Parliamentary Union on 30th Nov 2009 ranks
Sri Lanka at 122 place for female participation politics (4%). Most women who
are already in politics have a family history in politics. The main reasons for
this trend are the conflicting demands and the climate of violence associated
with politics. Political parties and unions have shown an amazing insensitivity
to gender in appointing candidates and leaders.
Gender and media in Sri
Lanka: Many
advertisements in media commodify women and assign discriminatory gender roles
to them. The Island newspaper regularly carries
pictures of semi nude women in its entertainment page. It also printed a letter
to its editor in 2001 which proposed lesbians to be subjected to convicted
rapists. ‘Women’s pages’ and TV
programmes aired during daytime are sexist and assumptive. Female announcers
are often ridiculed and belittled by their male co-hosts. This trend in media, which is a main socializing
agent, is alarming and needs immediate change.
Gender and legal rights in Sri Lanka: Family relations in Sri
Lanka come under the purview of the General
Law. Parallel systems of personal law (Islamic, Kandyan and Thesawamai) that
are grounded on ancient customs and/or religion too are recognized. All
citizens, irrespective of their gender, are entitled to full rights granted by
the constitution. Women’s rights are further strengthened by Women’s Charter
(1993), Domestic Violence Act (2005) and amendments done to the Penal Code in
1995 and 1998.
Despite the seemingly solid support
rendered by law, estimated 7% of girls (15-19yrs) are married, divorced or widowed
in 2004 alone according to a report published by the UN in 2004. The man is
considered the natural guardian of the child despite the fact that most of the
responsibilities related to child rearing are born by the woman. Domestic
violence and marital rape thrive largely unreported. Verbal abuse has become
part and parcel of the life of women at work, home and on roads. Sexual
harassment is trivialized and victims remain passive due to shame or lack of
effective support such as legal aid, trauma counselling and alternative
accommodation. According to the Police C/W Report dated 29/11/2007 in 2006, 144
murders, 40 attempted murders, 449 serious injuries, 69 kidnapping, 353 rapes,
963 sexual harassments and 1144 assault and injury cases were reported
involving women. Refusing sex is one of the reasons often cited by women as the
reason for violence. Men who are battered by their partners or subjected to
sexual harassment/abuse almost never report for the fear of losing face.
The Constitution gives equal rights of
inheritance to both men and women. But women are discriminated by the Land Development
Ordinance of 1934 which deny her land in new settlements if she has not owned
land in her place of origin. Islamic Law awards a greater portion of
inheritance to male heirs.
Chris Smith in Small Arms Survey 11
states, “In October 1999 49 children including 32 girls between 11-15 were
among the 140 LTTE carders killed in a battle with the security forces at
Ampakmam in the north (23)”. This indicates a gross violation of
gender/children’s rights by the LTTE which had recruited these girls forcibly. Most
of the suicide bombers used by the LTTE too were women. The main reason for
this is the fact that the functions allocated to the gender role of a Sri
Lankan woman do not include violence; therefore, a female bomber has better
access to sensitive areas relatively unchallenged.
Civil Law of Sri Lanka does not clearly address
discrimination or harassment based on sexual orientation or gender identity. Homosexuality
is technically illegal under Article 365-A, dealing with “gross indecency”.
Punishment for “gross indecency” entails heavy fins and long prison term but
there are very few records of these ever being practiced. Mr. Mangala
Samaraweera was the first openly gay
person to hold a public office in the country. However, it is largely understood
that a large number of undeclared individuals with transgender and homosexual
orientations hold considerable socioeconomic and political power in the island.
Transgender people are often said to be harassed
and discriminated. “Ponnaya” is a familiar derogatory term reserved for
transgender and effeminate men. Still, individuals such as Indu Dharmasena, a
respected dramatist and Kollu, a drag artist/celebrity chef, two well-known
transgender people, are prominent figures in the top circles of the capital’s
social scene.
In conclusion, gender differences in Sri Lanka are a
complex dynamic labyrinth of positive and negative situations. Gender roles and
relations are reflected in economic and social development of the country and
vice versa. Therefore, policy makers must be made aware of the importance of
maintaining acceptable standards in gender related issues in order to make
development more meaningful to everyone.
Works Cited
Amnesty International, IANSA, Oxfam International. The Impact of
Guns on Women’s Lives. Oxford:
The Alden Press, 2005.
“Descending order of the
percentage of women in the lower or single House.” <http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm>
“Gender Equality in Sri Lanka” <http://www.wikigender.org/index.php/Gender_Equality_in_Sri_Lanka>
“Lankan
women still struggling for their rights” <http://southasia.oneworld.net/opinioncomment/lankan-women-still-struggling-for-their-rights>
Police C/W Report 2006.
Schaefer, Richard. Sociology, A Brief
Introduction. 6th ed. New
York: McGraw Hill, 2006.
“SIGI Index Ranking” <http://genderindex.org/ranking>
Smith, Chris. Small
Arms Survey 11. Geneva:
Graduate Institute of International Studies, 2003
“Sri Lanka women” <http://www.southasianmedia.net/profile/srilanka/srilanka_women.cfm>
“Gender Equity In Media.” 29 May 2006. <http://www.ifj.org/en/articles/sri-lankan-women-journalists-call-for-gender-equity-in-media->
UNDP Human Development Report 2006.
World Bank report on gender gap in Sri
Lanka 2008
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