Irony
creates humour and teaches a lesson. However, in the Roman comedies the main
function of irony is the creation of humour. The main
reason for the emphasis on humour was the changed socio-political situation. As
discussed in The Frogs by Aristophanes, Greek drama was intimately connected
with the social, moral and political life of the polis. Greek poets were socio-political
reformers. The main tool of the Greek poets was irony. Poets used irony to
create humour. However, irony was equally important in teaching a lesson by
pointing out weaknesses.
The Roman poet Plautus was
heavily influenced by the Greek theatre both in form and content. Like his
Greek predecessors, Plautus, too, used irony in his adaptations of Greek plays.
However, Plautus had to make some changes in the use of irony due to the
following reasons:
1.
Unlike the cosmopolitan
Athenian audience - the Roman audience was insular and puritanical
2.
Athens was a democracy while - Rome
was a militarized state on its way to build an empire
3.
The Athenian state tolerated
and often encouraged socio-political criticism on stage; Roman rulers, on the
other hand, wanted total obedience from the populous
Consequently, the Roman
stage was never an arena for serious discussions on Roman politics despite many
references to socio-political institutions in Plautus. Instruction of the
masses, by Plautus’ time, was being delegated to politician-philosophers. Hence,
the Plautine theatre was mainly for the masses to have a good laugh at the
expense of the ‘eccentricities’ of the Greeks.
Moreover, the Roman
comedies often had to compete with chariot races and gladiatorial shows for an
audience. Thus, humour became more important at the expense of the didactic
element. However, the Greek setting allowed Roman writers like Plautus a safe
ground to talk about offensive Roman practices like slavery. So long as vices
are staged as Greek, the Romans enjoyed the plays.
Plautus also used his
plays to reinforce Roman values. In Amphitryo, Roman institutions such
as the military and the ideals such as truthfulness, virtue and valour are
glorified. In conclusion - the main themes of Amphitryo are: the relationships between
man and gods, slave and master, man and wife, and man and state. Sub-themes
such as virtue, fate, and valour are explored within these four main themes. Irony
is the main techniques used to bring out the above themes. Plautus uses three
types of irony in Amphytryo to illustrate his themes: verbal,
situational and dramatic irony.
1. Verbal irony - someone says something but
really means something else. It is created by - aphorisms, interior monologues
and puns
i.
Aphorisms – It’s a dog’s life, working for
a man with money
ii.
Interior monologues –
Sosia
– Eight strong men on the anvil and I’m the anvil. That is the sort of
reception I shall get – A hero’s welcome home. (Self-deprecating humour)
-
In the
kindness of his heart he’s going to oblige by putting me to sleep, after my
master keeping me awake all night
-
Now I
suppose they’ll be thinking a way of returning the complement, sending someone
along to welcome me home wit a jab in the jaw for not being grateful enough for
all they have done for me
Mercury
–
Thus I can
help my loving father
–
Then may
all the wrath of Mercury fall upon Sosia
–
(to
Blepharo) I came on winged feet, sir.
Jupiter
-
He is no
more Amphitryo than I am Jupiter
iii.
Puns - When Mercury accuses Sosia of coming with a patched
tale, Sosia acknowledges he has a patched tail
o
Verbal
irony is used mainly by the powerless such as Sosia against the powerful like
Mercury as a way of expressing their grievances
2. Situational irony is created by - farce and
incongruity. There is a discrepancy between what is expected to happen what
would be appropriate to happen and what really does happen
i.
The
interactions between Sosia and Mercury creates several farcical situations. The sub theme of slavery as an institution is
explored by these interactions. Plautus illustrates the abusive nature of
slavery practiced in the 2nd c. BC Rome using this technique.
ii.
Incongruity – the deliberate joining of opposites as in the depiction of - Jupiter
Optimus Maximus vs. Jupiter, the hen-pecked husband/ Jupiter, the lover of
Alcmena creates irony. Incongruity allows Plautus to explore the theme of relationship
between Man – God. Man is shown quite helpless in front of the overwhelming
power of gods and Fate.
o
Mercury:
I’m the one that should grumble. Look at me, a free god this morning, and now
my father’s slave. This fellow’s a slave from birth. Why should he grumble?
(Mercury should have empathized more with Sosia, being himself reduced to
slavery)
o
Sosia
being happy over the victory of Thebans over Teleboians when he himself must
have been reduced to slavery in a war like that
o
The only
place Sosia is safe is the house to
which he is bound to as a slave
o
Mercury’s
attempt to help Jupiter smooth the path with Alcmena backfires when Jupiter
threatens him
o
Oh, you’re
there vagabond, are you? Who asked you to interfere? You just keep your mouth
shut, or I’ll get this stick across your back. (Mercury’s situation is no less
pathetic than Sosia’s)
o
Amphitryo
expects a warm welcome from his wife hearing her praising him; however, the
reception he gets is a lukewarm one
o
Amphitryo
commends Alcmena on her virtue and than within a few minutes call her an
adulteress
o
The gods
men worship are not bound by the same moral code they expect men to uphold
o
Jupiter
sacrificing to himself
o
Upon
hearing Alcmena having twins, Amphitryo: The gods are good to me. (he doesn’t
know how good they had been to him :-)
o
Constant
invocations to Jupiter
o
Alcmena is
technically an adulteress while morally chaste
o
I don’t
see anything wrong in spending the night with my husband
o
I swear no
other mortal man but you has touched my body to my dishonour
3. Dramatic irony is created mainly by soliloquies
and foils. A character in a play or a story thinks one thing is true, but the
audience or the reader knows better.
i.
Mercury
and Jupiter acts as foils for Sosia and Amphitryo. Foils deal with themes such
as the relationships between man and god as well as slave and master. Plautus
shows how power operates through fear in these relationships. Alcmena’s tragic
nature is a foil to the farcical characterization of the other four characters.
The theme of relationship between man and wife – especially the concept of
ideal Roman wife is explored by the characterization of Alcmena. Another
sub-theme explored by the foil of Alcmena is the operation of virtue –
technical vs. moral virtue
§ Amphitryo does not believe Sosia’s story
·
S: Oh for
love and kisses! Me, him, Sosia. Haven’t I explained it to you? Don’t you
understand?
·
Am: Such a
pack of nonsense, nobody could understand.
§ Amphitryo does not believe Alcmena
·
Am: But I
haven’t seen you before today
·
Al: Of course you have. Why deny it?
·
Am: I am
not in the habit of speaking anything but the truth
§ The interaction between Blepharo, Amphitryo,
Jupiter, Sosia, Mercury, and Alcmena
In conclusion, the main focus of the play was to generate
laughter; therefore, that was the main function of the main technique – which
was irony. In creating irony in a play with gods as characters Plautus risked
censorship. Hence, as Watling points out, irony is used cautiously in the
depiction of the gods. Plautus used ironic humour generated by the interactions
between gods and man to highlight his themes. However, though one might let out
a nervous giggle, Jupiter and Mercury never really loses the ability to invoke
fear. In Amphitryo, the real comedy is created by the human characters that
are unable to divine the larger plan set in motion by the gods. In Amphitryo, Plautus uses irony
to express his somewhat controversial themes successfully in an environment
that was inhospitable to any form of socio-political criticism.
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