o What is a hydraulic
civilization? A culture that depends on conservation, distribution and use of
water for most of its activities is called a hydraulic civilization.
o What was the reason
for the establishment of reservoirs?
i. Rajarata received
rain only during north-east monsoon
ii. Insufficient water
for agriculture
iii. Irregularities in
rainfall
iv. Population growth
o First Aryan
settlements:
i. Thambapanni – valley
of Aruchi Aru
ii. Upatissadama – bank
of Kanadara Oya
iii. Anuradagama –
Kadamba Nadee (Malwatu Oya)
iv. Vijithagama –
Mahavaluka Nadee (Mahaweli River)
v. Uruwela – Gona Nadee
(Kala Oya)
vi. Kajaragama/Chandanagama
– Kapparakanda Nadee (Menik River)
vii. Mahagama/Chittala
pabbatha – Kirinda Nadee (Kirindi Oya)
viii. Gokanna – Mahaweli
estuary
ix. Kalyani – Kalyani
Nadee (Kelani River)
o What had made paddy cultivation the main
occupation of the Aryans?
a. Availability of
water
b. Flat land for
suitable cultivation
c. Fertile alluvial
soil
d. Suitable climatic
conditions
o What were the 3 types of tanks that existed by
the 2nd century?
a. Gamika Wewa –
village level tanks
b. Maha Wewa – large
c. Dhana Wewa –
supplementary tanks fed by channels of water usually built and owned by a
Parumaka (village chief)
|
Name of the king
|
Reign
|
Tanks
|
Other
|
|
Minister of Anuradha
|
|
Unidentified
|
|
|
Pandukabhaya
|
437- 367BC
|
|
|
|
Devanampiyatissa
|
307 -267BC
|
|
|
|
Vasabha
|
66 – 110AD
|
11 tanks including
Hiriwadunna
|
12 canals including
|
|
Mahasen
|
276-303AD
|
|
|
|
Datusena
|
459 – 477 AD
|
|
|
|
Moggallana II
|
535 – 555 AD
|
|
|
|
Agbo I
|
575 – 608 AD
|
|
|
|
Agbo II
|
608 – 618 AD
|
|
|
|
Parakramabahu the Great
|
1153 – 1186 AD
|
|
|
|
Nissankamalla
|
1187 – 1196 AD
|
|
|
- Construction of irrigation systems passed 3 systems:
- Building low dams across streams, canals, small rivers etc. to control and direct water to needy areas
- Building large dams to control and divert water into large man-made tanks/reservoirs. Kala Oya – Kala Wewa, Malwatu oya – Tissa Wewa
- Developed methods to control the flow of water to needy areas through canals. Ridibandi Anicut – Deduru Oya, Minipe Anicut - Mahaweli
- Design of reservoirs:
- Bund – a compressed earthen dam connecting two hillocks.
- Wave Breaker (ralapanawa/salapanawa) – stone revetments lining the inner surface of the bund to prevent soil erosion.
- Spill (pitawana) – channel that carries the excess water in the tank. It is built on the lowest point of the tank. The opening in the bund is lined with stone revetments to prevent erosion and to withstand the pressure exerted on the bund.
- Sluice (sorowwa/ horowwa) – a deep square outlet built into the bam to release water to canals. A sluice consists of two parts; the upper sluice (goda sorowwa) and the mud sluice. The upper sluice is used when the water level is high. It is also used to release water to higher grounds. The mud sluice is used to release water when the water level is low. Large tanks may have several sluices.
- Silt Trap/ sluice Tower (Bisokotuwa) – a square granite lined well sunk through the bund to the bottom of the sluice. It allows water to pass from the tank to the canals outside. By regulating the flow of the water Bisokotuwa reduces the huge pressure exerted on the bund and protects it.
- Canals –
- Jaya Ganga/ Yoda Ela – King Datusena, 54 miles with a gradient of one inch per mile to carry water from Kala Wewa to Tissa Wewa
- Elahera Canal – Kinh Vasabha, from Amban Ganga/ King Mahasen, extended it to feed Minneriya, Giritale and Kawudulu reservoirs
- Pabbata Ela – Mahasen
- Minipe Ela – Agbo I, 27 miles from Mahaveli River
- Angammedilla Canal – Parakramabahu I, Ambanganga to Parakramasamudraya
Central Administration
- The prehistoric tribes of Sri Lanka had a system of tribal administration – Mahavamsa
- With the coronation of Devanampiyatissa under the patronage of the Maurya Emperor Asoka, kingship grew in stature
- King was known as “Raja” or “Maha Raja”
- The queen too was coroneted at the coronation ceremony
- A king should be of noble decent - “ubaya kula paarisuddha”
- Inheritance passed from brother to brother during A’ pura period. After the youngest brother the eldest son of the eldest brother inherited the throne
- During the latter part of the A’pura Era the country was divided into 4 administrative divisions
- Rajarata
- Uttaradesha
- Dakkinadesha
- Pachchimadesha
- Pachinadesha
- Dakkinadesha – administered by Mapa
- Rohanadesha – administered by Epa
- Malayadesha
- The administration of Dakkinadesha was usually given to king’s younger brother under title of “Mapa”
- “Rohana Bojaka” or “Epa” was the next in line after “Mapa”
- Most of the kings of A’pura were trained as Mapa and Epa before they became kings
- A king had to rule the country based on the principles of “Dasaraaja Dharma”. They had to provide protection for the subjects, develop irrigation and agriculture and protect Buddha Sasana. When kings were unjust subjects rioted against them. eg: Mahasen destroying Mahavihaaraya
- The king, mapa and epa occupied the top levels of administration
- “Senadhipati/ senevi/ senevirad (Commander-in-chief) occupied the next level. When the army expanded the post of the commander-in-chief diversified as
- sakka senadipathi
- andha senadipathi
- brahma senadipathi
- “Purohitha” (Chief Advisor) advised on the rituals relating to:
- Coronation
- Royal births, deaths and marriages
- Religious activities
- And interpreted dreams
- Dvaraka (Gate Keeper) controlled the palace activities
- Asiggahaka (Sward bearer) – in charge of the armoury
- Chattagahaka (Flag bearer) – responsible for flags and umbrellas of the king
- Baddakarika (treasurer)
- Mahalena/ Malekaka/ Lekamge Sandaruwan/ Sannas Amanthi – responsible for documentation of the court activities
- Agramatya (Prime Minister) – chief minister of the “Raja Sabhawa”
- Adikaaram, maharetina, anuna, sabhapathina, situna, sirirhlena, dulena, viyatna, mahavedana, mahanakatina, dahampasakna
- According to “Doratiyawa Sannasa” the queen was consulted when taking decisions
Local government
o Rohana, Dakkinadesha and Malayarata were
ruled by the members of the royal family as separate administrative units
- The smallest administrative unit was the village (gama) and the administrator of a village was called “Gamika”/ “ Gamladda”. He headed the “Gamsabha”.
- The “Gam Sabha” was responsible for:
- Maintenance of peace
- Implementation of law and order
- Collection of taxes
- Apprehension of those accused of major crimes and presenting them to higher judiciaries
- According to “Wewelketiya Inscriptions” of Horowpatana “Gamsabha” had to 45 days to dispense justice. Failure to do so resulted in the entire village being made to pay a fine of a measure of gold
Judicial system
- The king was the chief of the judiciary. He was assisted by qualified officers to handle legal matters
- Gamsabha functioned at village level
Economic patterns
Agriculture
o Chena Cultivation
(slash and burn cultivation)- the earliest form of cultivation. Kurakkan
(finger millet), undu, ma, mung, corn, meneri, mustered, amu, tana, duru,
karabatu, tibbatu, vambatu, ash-gourd, pumpkin, sugar cane were cultivated. – Thonigala
Inscriptions. According to Nissanka Malla Inscriptions chena cultivators
were exempted from taxes.
o
Paddy
cultivation - at first only “yala” and “maha” seasons were cultivated. Later a
third season called “Medahasa” was cultivated – Tjonigala Inscriptions by
King Siri Meghawanna
o Home gardening
(gevatu/ arub)- vegetables, yams, grains, ginger, betel, pepper, areca nut,
sesame, orange, mango, banana, jake (coconut cultivation was introduced by Agbo
I in the 6th century AD)
Industries:
i.
Irrigation
ii.
Architecture
iii.
Carpentry
iv.
Pottery
v.
Pearl
diving
vi.
Gem
mining
vii.
Jewellery
and ornament making
viii.
Bronze
casting
ix.
Minting
coins
x.
Iron
mongering
xi.
Weaving
xii.
Ceramic
and glass industry
Trade
o
Internal
trade
a. According to legends
prehistoric tribes engaged in trade with the foreign sailors
b. Internal trade was
done using carts, caravans, or touring traders.
c. According to Badulla
Pillar Inscriptions of King Day IV Hopitigama (Padi) near Sorabora was a large
market town
d. Brahmin inscriptions
found at Ampara and Hambantota refer to “Vanija” or “Vaaniva” (merchants) in
pre-Christian era
e. “Nikaya Sangrahaya”
refers to a “Situna” – a person in charge of traders
f. “Deepawamsa” refers
to a “antarapaana” at Upatissagaama as a
market place. Small market places were called “Nigaama” or “Niyamgam”
g. “Vikkayika-
hastapavanagara” were places that sold cooked food
h. Money and goods were
exchanged in transactions
i. Money had been specifically
used in land transactions, paying fines irrigation expenses and labour charges
j. Parakramabahu the
Great issued “Kahavanu” for trading activities
k. “Karshapaana” ,
“Kahapana” or “Kahawanu” – punched marked triangular silver pieces were used as
coins
o
Foreign
trade
·
Geographical
relationships and foreign relationships:
o Centrally located in
the Indian Ocean
o A country close to
yet separated by India
o Situated on the Silk
Rout
o Situated along the
path of the monsoons
o Natural harbours
o Location in
comparison to India, China, Greece, Rome, Egypt
·
Natural
harbours involved in international trade:
a. Mahathitta
b. Gokanna
c. urathota (Kyts)
d. Devanagara
e. Jambakolapatuna
f. Kalyani
g. Thambapanni
h. Uruwela
i. Godawaya
j. Galle
o Ambegala
Inscriptions carry a picture of a sailing ship
o Chinese sailor Li-
Chao refered to large Sri Lankan ships
o Al- Adris referred
to SL as a place to repair ships
o “Chulavamsa” refers
to the shipyards of Parakramabahu the Great
o Buvanekabahu I had
informed the Sultan of Egypt of the possibility of providing 20 ships annually
o Imports – porcelain,
fans, perfume, silk, coral, beads, horses, ornamental pottery, carpets
o Exports – gems,
pearls, elephants, ivory, cotton textile, turtle shells, spices
o Had trade
relationships with India, Arabia, China and Burma during Polonnaruwa Era. Rome,
Persia, Ethiopia, Greece and Malaya traded with SL
o Silk brought by the
Chinese traders was transhipped to Rome by Persian traders in SL
o King Bhatikabhaya
imported red coral from Rome
The nature of relationships between Sri Lanka and other countries:
o Political
relationships
·
Migrations
§ Vijaya and
companions
§ Panduwasadeva
§ Baddachacchayana
§ Mahinda Thero
§ Sangamitta therini
and the workers of the 18 guilds
·
Invasions
§ Sena Guttika
invasion during King Suratissa’s time
§ Elara invasion during
King Asela’s time
§ Pullahatta and the 6
companions during King Valababa’s time
§ Pandu, Parinda and 3
companions before King Datusena’s reign
§ Sri Mara Vallabha
invasion during the reign of Sena I
§ Raja Raja invasion
during Mihindu V’s reign
§ Kalinga Magha invasion
·
Assistance
in acquiring kingship
§ King Abhayanaga
sought help from the Chola during the 3rd century
§ Mugalan I sought
help from south India against his brother Kasyapa
§ King Sirinagha
sought help from the Dravidians
§ Agbo III sought help
from the Dravidians
§ King Mahanama sought
help from the Pallawa in 684 AD
·
Marriages
§ Vijaya – a
Madurapura princess
§ Panduwasudeva –
Baddacacchana, a Sakya princess
§ Mihind IV – a Kaliga
princess
§ Vijayabahu I –
Thilokasundari, a Kalinga princess
§ Mitta – a Pandya
prince
o Religion
o
Buddhism
§ “Thripitaka Buddha
Dharma” was introduced in the 3rd century
§ Buddhism introduced
had “Theravada” features
§ “Vitulyavadaya”/
Mahayana Buddhism was introduced in the 1st century BC
§ Parakramabahu the
Great had tried to unit the different denominations through “Polonnaruwa
Katikawata”
·
Mahaviharaya
– therawada
·
Abhayagiriya
– Dhammaruchi
·
Jethavanaramaya
– Sagalika
o
Hinduism
§ 1017 – 1070 AD
Polonnaruwa was ruled by Chola kings
§ shiva Devala 1 and 2
were constructed
§ Shiva, Vishnu,
Parwati, Karthikeya, Gananatha, Kali, Lakshmi and Shiva Linga were worshipped
§ Brahmins held a high
place in society as educators and religious leaders
§ During Polonnaruwa
era Hindu “devala” were introduced to temples
o Culture
o
Art
and craft
§ Indian influence was
the reason for the devrelopment of art and craft in SL
·
Maurya
·
Sathavahana
(Andra)
o Buddha statue of
mahailuppallama
o Queen Mahamaya and
the dream at Shravasti
·
Guptha
o Thivanka statue
o Samadhi statue
o Courting couple at
Isurumuniya
o Sigiriya frescoes
·
Pallawa
o Horse and the man at
Isurumuniya
·
Chola
o Shiva Devala 1 &
2
·
Amarawathi tradition – Awukana statue
·
Polonnaruwa
was a mature state of the art and craft of the A’pura era. Ox was removed from
the “Sandakada Pahana” as Hindus venerated the Ox.
o
Education
§ In the early days education
was in the hands of the Brahmis
§ With the arrival of
Buddhism “Pirivena” were established and the Buddhist clergy took over
education . Mahavihara, Abhayagiriya and Alahana Pirivena were centres of
education
o
Literature
§ Thripitakaya was
translated to Sinhala
·
Maha
Attakatha
·
Kurindi
Attakatha
·
Maha
Pachchari Attakatha
These were the
foundations of the subsequent Buddhist literature
o Diplomatic
relationships
o Aryans arrived from the west and east of India.
Therefore the earliest diplomatic relationships were with these parts of the
world
o Later migrations,
invasions, marriages had led to further complex ties
Reasons for the decline of the hydraulic civilization
o Hydraulic
civilization existed in the northern plains in the dry zone from 6th
to 12th century AD
o Invasions of the
Chola and Pandya
o Magha’s forces
destroyed the irrigation systems
o Central
administration collapsed as a result of the weaknesses of the latter kings of
Polonnaruwa kingdom
o Water management
systems were neglected
o People migrated to
Rohanadesha and Mayarata looking for suitable places for agricultural
activities
o Malaria epidemics
o Formation of
jungles
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